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                    <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">Spatial assessment of tap-water safety in China</h1>
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            <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>The quality of drinking-water supplies is of fundamental importance to public health and sustainable development. Here, we provide a spatial assessment of the tap-water quality across mainland China. We examine natural and anthropogenic origins of low quality as well as its association with public health risks. By quantifying key indicators, including total organic carbon, ionic conductivity and disinfection by-products (DBPs), we find that precipitation is a crucial factor driving the change of organic matter content and ionic conductivity of tap-water, especially for arid and semi-arid regions. Although the concentration of DBPs is closely related to the organic matter content, the occurrence of highly toxic DBPs is more subject to anthropogenic factors such as economic development and pollution emission. We show that nanofiltration is an effective point-of-use treatment to reduce the adverse effects of DBPs. The present results highlight the potential health hazards associated with low-quality drinking water, suggesting that countries and regions experiencing rapid socioeconomical development might face high levels of DBP toxicity and should consider adoption of sustainability solutions.</p></div></div></section>
            
    
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                    <div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1: TOC and ionic conductivity of tap-water.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="312" height="240"></picture></div></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2: Occurrence of DBPs in tap-water samples.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="312" height="198"></picture></div></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3: DBP association with bladder cancer.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="312" height="206"></picture></div></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4: Calculated DBP cytotoxicity.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig4_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig4_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="312" height="201"></picture></div></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-5"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig5" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 5: Overview of water quality and environmental factors.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig5_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig5_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="312" height="203"></picture></div></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-6"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig6" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 6: Water-quality improvement by NF.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig6_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41893-022-00898-5/MediaObjects/41893_2022_898_Fig6_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="312" height="275"></picture></div></div></figure></div>
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                <section data-title="Data availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="data-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="data-availability">Data availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="data-availability-content">
              
              <p>The water-quality data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. All other data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper and its <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41893-022-00898-5#MOESM1">Supplementary Information</a>.</p>
            </div></div></section><section data-title="Change history"><div class="c-article-section" id="change-history-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="change-history">Change history</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="change-history-content"><ul class="c-article-change-list"><li class="c-article-change-list__item u-mb-24" id="chg1"><ins datetime="2026-07-17"><h3 class="c-article-change-list__heading u-h3 u-pr-8 u-display-inline">17 July 2026</h3><div class="c-article-change-list__details"><p>A Correction to this paper has been published: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-026-01911-x">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-026-01911-x</a></p></div></ins></li></ul></div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Prüss-Ustün, A. et al. Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries. <i>Trop. Med. Int. Health</i> <b>19</b>, 894–905 (2014).</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1111/tmi.12329" data-track-item_id="10.1111/tmi.12329" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ftmi.12329" aria-label="Article reference 1" data-doi="10.1111/tmi.12329">Article</a> 
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JQ21032, W.Y.), Key Research and Development Plan of the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology (no. 2019YFD1100104 and no. 2019YFC1906501, W.Y.).</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">State Key Laboratory of Environmental Aquatic Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Mengjie Liu, Wenyu Wang &amp; Wenzheng Yu</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Mengjie Liu</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Nigel Graham</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Renzun Zhao</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Fujian, China</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Yonglong Lu</p></li><li id="Aff6"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Menachem Elimelech</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Mengjie-Liu-Aff1-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Mengjie Liu</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Mengjie%20Liu" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - 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M.L. led the data compilation, conducted the analysis and led the write-up of the paper. M.L. and W.W. did the experiment. N.G., R.Z., Y.L., M.E. and W.Y. reviewed the paper, exchanged ideas and prepared the final version of the manuscript.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding authors</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to
                <a id="corresp-c1" aria-label="email Menachem Elimelech" href="mailto:menachem.elimelech@yale.edu">Menachem Elimelech</a> or <a id="corresp-c2" aria-label="email Wenzheng Yu" href="mailto:wzyu@rcees.ac.cn">Wenzheng Yu</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content">
              
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                <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p>
              
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                <p><i>Nature Sustainability</i> thanks Baiyang Chen, Antonio Azara, Xiangru Zhang and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.</p>
              
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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Liu, M., Graham, N., Wang, W. <i>et al.</i> Spatial assessment of tap-water safety in China.
                    <i>Nat Sustain</i> <b>5</b>, 689–698 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-00898-5</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1038/s41893-022-00898-5?format=refman&amp;flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2021-12-13">13 December 2021</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Accepted<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-04-21">21 April 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-06-09">09 June 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Version of record<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-06-09">09 June 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Issue date<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-08">August 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item c-bibliographic-information__list-item--full-width"><p><abbr title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</abbr><span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-00898-5</span></p></li></ul><div data-component="share-box"><div class="c-article-share-box u-display-none" hidden=""><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Share this article</h3><p class="c-article-share-box__description">Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:</p><button class="js-get-share-url c-article-share-box__button" type="button" id="get-share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-external="" data-track-action="get shareable link">Get shareable link</button><div class="js-no-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info">Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.</p></div><div class="js-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-share-url c-article-share-box__only-read-input" id="share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="select share url"></p><button class="js-copy-share-url c-article-share-box__button--link-like" type="button" id="copy-share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="copy share url" data-track-external="">Copy shareable link to clipboard</button></div><p class="js-c-article-share-box__additional-info c-article-share-box__additional-info">
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